Chilli anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species§

Chilli anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species § § 1 2 first-author 3 4 3 5 6 2 1 3 corresp ‡Corresponding Author ‡Corresponding Author †E-mail:kdhyde1@gmail.com †E-mail:kdhyde1@gmail.com kdhyde1@gmail.com International Fungal Research and Development Centre, the Research Institute of Resources Insect, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Kunming 650224, China International Fungal Research and Development Centre, the Research Institute of Resources Insect, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Kunming 650224, China BioMarka, School of Agriculture and Food Systems, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia BioMarka, School of Agriculture and Food Systems, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia Fungal Research Group, School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Tasud, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand Fungal Research Group, School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Tasud, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University, Malang 65145, Indonesia Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University, Malang 65145, Indonesia Mushroom Research Centre, 128 Moo 3 T. Pa Pae, A. Mae Taeng, Chiang Mai 50150, Thailand Mushroom Research Centre, 128 Moo 3 T. Pa Pae, A. Mae Taeng, Chiang Mai 50150, Thailand Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Laos, Vientiane, Lao PDR Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Laos, Vientiane, Lao PDR Anthracnose disease is one of the major economic constraints to chilli production worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical regions. Accurate taxonomic information is necessary for effective disease control management. In the Colletotrichum patho-system, different Colletotrichum species can be associated with anthracnose of the same host. Little information is known concerning the interactions of the species associated with the chilli anthracnose although several Colletotrichum species have been reported as causal agents of chilli anthracnose disease worldwide. The ambiguous taxonomic status of Colletotrichum species has resulted in inaccurate identification which may cause practical problems in plant breeding and disease management. Although the management and control of anthracnose disease are still being extensively researched, commercial cultivars of Capsicum annuum that are resistant to the pathogens that cause chilli anthracnose have not yet been developed. This paper reviews the causal agents of chilli anthracnose, the disease cycle, conventional methods in identification of the pathogen and molecular approaches that have been used for the identification of Colletotrichum species. Pathogenetic variation and population structure of the causal agents of chilli anthracnose along with the current taxonomic status of Colletotrichum species are discussed. Future developments leading to the disease management strategies are suggested. Capsicum annuum Disease management Identification Taxonomy Pathogenicity INTRODUCTION 1 Colletotrichum is one of the most important plant pathogens worldwide causing the economically important disease anthracnose in a wide range of hosts including cereals, legumes, vegetables, perennial crops and tree fruits (Bailey and Jeger, 1992 1992 ). Among these hosts, chilli ( Capsicum spp.), an important economic crop worldwide (Poulos, 1992 1992 ), is severely infected by anthracnose which may cause yield losses of up to 50% (Pakdeevaraporn et al., 2005 2005 ). Typical anthracnose symptoms on chilli fruit include sunken necrotic tissues, with concentric rings of acervuli. Fruits showing blemishes have reduced marketability (Manandhar et al., 1995 1995 ). In the Colletotrichum patho-system, different Colletotrichum species can be associated with anthracnose of the same host (Simmonds, 1965 1965 ; Freeman et al., 1998 1998 ; Cannon et al., 2000 2000 ). Anthracnose of chilli has been shown to be caused by more than one Colletotrichum species including C . acutatum (Simmonds), C . capsici (Syd.) Butler and Bisby, C . gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc., and C . coccodes (Wallr.) S. Hughes (Simmonds, 1965 1965 ; Johnston and Jones, 1997 1997 ; Kim et al., 1999 1999 ; Nirenberg et al., 2002 2002 ; Voorrips et al., 2004 2004 ; Sharma et al., 2005 2005 ; Pakdeevaraporn et al., 2005 2005 ; Than et al., 2008 2008 ). There is little information concerning the interactions between the complexes of species involved in chilli anthracnose (Than et al., 2008 2008 ). This information is necessary for plant breeding purposes and disease management. Some Colletotrichum species respond differently to various control measures, e.g., C . acutatum was found to be moderately susceptible to the fungicide, benzimidazole, while C . gloeosporioides was highly susceptible (Peres et al., 2004 2004 ). Correct and accurate identification will thus ultimately lead to more effective disease control and management, e.g., selecting appropriate fungicides, or long lasting resistant cultivars (Whitelaw-Weckert et al., 2007 2007 ). The current taxonomic status of Colletotrichum species is unclear (Sreenivasaprasad and Talhinhas, 2005 2005 ). The broad host range of many species has caused problems for plant pathologists who need to identify specific plant pathogens to control disease. Molecular techniques have provided additional data to aid the naming of fungi, and have been applied to taxonomically difficult genera including Fusarium (O′Donnell et al., 1998 1998 ; Maxwell et al., 2005 2005 ), Pestalotiopsis (Jeewon et al., 2002 2002 ; 2003 2003 ; 2004 2004 ; Lui et al., 2007 2007 ), Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs (Crous et al., 2000 2000 ; Mancini et al., 2006 2006 ), but to a lesser extent to Colletotrichum (Sreenivasaprasad et al., 1996 1996 ; Moriwaki et al., 2002 2002 ; Photita et al., 2005 2005 ; Du et al., 2005 2005 ). The management and control of anthracnose diseases are still being extensively researched. This paper reviews the host ‘chilli’ as well as the causal agents of the chilli anthracnose, their pathogenic variability and approaches leading to the disease management. HOST: CHILLI 1 The genus Capsicum was originated in the American tropics and has been propagated throughout the world including the tropics, subtropics, and also temperate regions (Pickersgill, 1997 1997 ). The fruit of Capsicum has a variety of names, such as ‘chilli’, ‘chilli pepper’ or ‘pepper’ depending on place (i.e., differences between the English-speaking countries) and type of fruits. The term “chilli” in most of the world refers exclusively to the smaller, hot types of Capsicum (Wikipedia, 2007 2007 ). Capsicum contains approximately 20~27 species, 5 of which are domesticated: C . annuum , C . baccatum , C . chinense , C . frutescens , and C . pubescens , and are cultivated in different parts of the world. Among the five species of cultivated Capsicum , C . annuum is one of the most common cultivated crops worldwide (Tong and Bosland, 1999 1999 ) followed by C . frutescens (Bosland and Votava, 2003 2003 ). Chilli has many culinary advantages. It comprises numerous chemicals including steam-volatile oils, fatty oils, capsaicinoids, carotenoids, vitamins, protein, fibre and mineral elements (Bosland and Votava, 2003 2003 ). Many chilli constituents are important for nutritional value, flavor, aroma, texture and color. Chillies are low in sodium and cholesterol free, rich in vitamins A and C, and are a good source of potassium, folic acid and vitamin E. Fresh green chilli peppers contain more vitamin C than citrus fruits and fresh red chilli has more vitamin A than carrots (Osuna-García et al., 1998 1998 ; Marin et al., 2004 2004 ). Two chemical groups produced by chilli are capsaicinoids and carotenoids. The capsaicinoids are alkaloids that make hot chilli pungent. A large number of carotenoids provide high nutritional value and the color to chilli (Britton and Hornero-Méndez, 1997 1997 ; Hornero-Méndez et al., 2002 2002 ; Pérez-Gálvez et al., 2003 2003 ). CONSTRAINTS TO CHILLI PRODUCTION 1 Chilli is considered to be one of the most important crops in the tropics. The area cultivated with chilli worldwide is about 1 700 000 ha for producing fresh chilli, and around 1 800 000 ha for producing dried chilli; a total area of 3 729 900 ha with a total production of 20 000 000 t (FAO, 2003 2003 ). The most important producers and exporters of chilli include China, India, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Thailand and Turkey. Diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses are the major constraints to chilli production. Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species, bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum , and mosaic disease caused by chilli veinal mottle virus (CVMV) or cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) are the most serious destructive diseases of chilli (Isaac, 1992 1992 ). Anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum species is one of the most economically important diseases reducing marketable yield from 10% to 80% of the crop production in some developing countries, particularly in Thailand (Poonpolgul and Kumphai, 2007 2007 ). Anthracnose is mainly a problem on mature fruits, causing severe losses due to both pre- and post-harvest fruit decay (Hadden and Black, 1989 1989 ; Bosland and Votava, 2003 2003 ). ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE 1 Anthracnose, derived from a Greek word meaning ‘coal’, is the common name for plant diseases characterized by very dark, sunken lesions, containing spores (Isaac, 1992 1992 ). Generally, anthracnose disease is caused by Colletotrichum species which belongs to the Kingdom Fungi; Phylum Ascomycota, Class Sordariomycetes; Order Phyllachorales; and Family Phyllachoraceae. The anamorphs are Glomerella species. Anthracnose of chilli was first reported from New Jersey, USA, by Halsted ( 1890 1890 ) in 1890 who described the causal agents as Gloeopsorium piperatum and Colletotrichum nigrum . These taxa were then considered as synonyms of C . gloeosporioides by von Arx ( 1957 1957 ). Anthracnose causes extensive pre- and post-harvest damage to chilli fruits causing anthracnose lesions. Even small anthracnose lesions on chilli fruits reduce their marketable value (Manandhar et al., 1995 1995 ). Many post-harvest diseases of fruit exhibit the phenomenon of quiescence in which symptoms do not develop until the fruit ripens. Colletotrichum species are the most important pathogens that cause latent infection (Jeffries et al., 1990 1990 ). Appressoria are known to form adhesive disks that adhere to plant surfaces and remain latent until physiological changes occur in fruits (Bailey and Jeger, 1992 1992 ). Appressoria that formed on immature fruits may remain quiescent until ontogenic changes occur in the fruits (Prusky and Plumbley, 1992 1992 ). Anthracnose disease can occur on leaves, stems, and both pre- and post-harvest fruits (Isaac, 1992 1992 ). Typical fruit symptoms are circular or angular sunken lesions, with concentric rings of acervuli that are often wet and produce pink to orange conidial masses (Fig. 1 1 ). Under severe disease pressure, lesions may coalesce. Conidial masses may also occur scatteredly or in concentric rings on the lesions. Many studies have concluded that disease management practices are often inadequate to eliminate the diseases. Breeding to develop the long-lasting resistant varieties has also not been successful due to involvement of multiple Colletotrichum species in anthracnose infection. Causal agents of chilli anthracnose 2 In the Colletotrichum patho-system, different Colletotrichum species can be associated with anthracnose of the same host (Simmonds, 1965 1965 ; Freeman et al., 1998 1998 ; Cannon et al., 2000 2000 ). Colletotrichum species causing anthracnose of chilli have been reported from different countries and regions (Table 1 1 ). Although these species have been the subject of numerous investigations, there remain many gaps in the knowledge of the disease process and understanding of the complex relationships between the species involved. Kim et al.( 2004 2004 ) reported that different species cause diseases of different organs of the chilli plant; for example, C . acutatum and C . gloeosporioides infect chilli fruits at all developmental stages, but usually not the leaves or stems, which are mostly damaged by C . coccodes and C . dematium . Leaf anthracnose of chilli seedlings caused by C . coccodes was first reported in chilli growing in a field in Chungnam Province of Korea in 1988 (Hong and Hwang, 1998 1998 ). Different Colletotrichum species may also play an important role in different diseases of mature stages of chilli fruit as well. For example, C . capsici is widespread in red chilli fruits, whereas C . acutatum and C . gloeosporioides have been reported to be more prevalent on both young and mature green fruits (Hong and Hwang, 1998 1998 ; Kim et al., 1999 1999 ). Anthracnose caused by C . coccodes does not result in severe epidemics on chilli fruits (Hong and Hwang, 1998 1998 ). C . gloeosporioides , the predominant species on chilli in Korea, was differentiated into G and R strains by isozyme analysis of esterase, leucine amino peptidase, phosphatase and glutamine oxalocetic trasminase (Park et al., 1987 1987 ). Countries and regions Causal agent Reference Australia Colletotrichum acutatum , C . atramentarium , C . dematium , C . gloeosporioides var. minor , C . gloeosporioides var. gloeosporioides Simmonds, 1965 1965 India C . capsici Maiti and Sen, 1979 1979 ; Paul and Behl, 1990 1990 Indonesia C . acutatum , C . capsici , C . gloeosporioides Voorrips et al., 2004 2004 Korea C . acutatum , C . gloeosporioides , C . coccodes , C . dematium Park and Kim, 1992 1992 Myanmar (Burma) Gloeosporium piperatum E. and E., C . nigrum E. and Hals Dastur, 1920 1920 Papua New Guinea C . capsici , C . gloeosporioides Pearson et al., 1984 1984 New Zealand C . coccodes Johnston and Jones, 1997 1997 Taiwan C . acutatum , C . capsici , C . gloeosporioides Manandhar et al., 1995 1995 Thailand C . acutatum , C . capsici , C . gloeosporioides Than et al., 2008 2008 UK C . acutatum , Glomerella cingulata Adikaram et al., 1983 1983 USA C . acutatum Roberts et al., 2001 2001 Vietnam C . acutatum , C . capsici , C . gloeosporioides , C . nigrum Don et al., 2007 2007 Colletotrichum species can survive in and on seeds as acervuli and micro-sclerotia (Pernezny et al., 2003 2003 ). Survival of mycelia and stomata in colonized chilli seeds had been reported (Manandhar et al., 1995 1995 ). It has been shown that the pathogen readily colonizes the seed coat and peripheral layers of the endosperm even in moderately colonized seeds. Heavily colonized seeds had abundant inter- and intracellular mycelia and acervuli in the seed coat endosperm and embryo, showing disintegration of parenchymatous layers of the seed coat and depletion of food material in endosperm and embryo (Chitkara et al., 1990 1990 ). Fungi can overwinter on alternative hosts such as other solanaceous or legume crops, plant debris and rotten fruits in the field (Pring et al., 1995 1995 ). Colletotrichum species naturally produce micro-sclerotia to allow dormancy in the soil during the winter or when subjected to stressful conditions, and these micro-sclerotia can survive for many years (Pring et al., 1995 1995 ). During warm and wet periods, conidia from acervuli and micro-sclerotia are splashed by rain or irrigation water from diseased to healthy fruit and foliage. Diseased fruit acts as a source of inoculum, allowing the disease to spread from plant to plant within the field (Roberts et al., 2001 2001 ). Initial infection by Colletotrichum species involves a series of processes including the attachment of conidia to plant surfaces, germination of conidia, production of adhesive appressoria, penetration of plant epidermis, growth and colonization of plant tissue and production of acervuli and sporulation (Bailey and Jeger, 1992 1992 ; Prusky et al., 2000 2000 ). Anthracnose is mainly a problem on mature fruits, causing both pre- and post-harvest fruit decay resulting severe economic losses (Hadden and Black, 1989 1989 ; Bosland and Votava, 2003 2003 ). Appressoria that formed on immature fruits may remain quiescent until the fruits mature or ripen. Disease cycle and epidemiology of anthracnose 2 Environmental factors play a major role in the development of disease epidemics. The relationships among rainfall intensity, duration and crop geometry and the dispersal of inoculum possibly lead to different levels of disease severity (Dodd et al., 1992 1992 ). The effects of temperature often interact with other factors, such as leaf surface wetness, humidity, light or competitive microbiota (Royle and Butler, 1986 1986 ). The duration of the surface wetness, however, appears to have the most direct influence on the germination, infection and growth of the pathogen on the host. Generally infection occurs during warm, wet weather. Temperatures around 27 °C and high humidity (a mean of 80%) are optimum for anthracnose disease development (Roberts et al., 2001 2001 ). Colletotrichum species utilize diverse strategies for invading host tissues, which vary from intracellular hemibiotrophy to subcuticular intramural necrotrophy (Bailey and Jeger, 1992 1992 ). Colletotrichum species produce a series of specialized infection structures such as germ tubes, appressoria, intracellular hyphae, and secondary necrotrophic hyphae (Perfect et al., 1999 1999 ). These pathogens infect plants by either colonizing subcuticular tissues intramurally or being established intracellularly. The preinfection stages of the both are very similar, in which conidia adhere to and germinate on the plant surface, producing germ tubes that form appressoria which in turn penetrate the cuticle directly (Bailey and Jeger, 1992 1992 ). Following penetration, the pathogens that colonize the intramural region beneath the cuticle invade in a necrotrophic manner and spread rapidly throughout the tissues (O′Connell et al., 1985 1985 ). There is no detectable biotrophic stage in this form of parasitism. In contrast, most anthracnose pathogens exhibit a biotropic infection strategy initially by colonizing the plasmalemma and cell wall intracellularly. After the biotrophic state, intracellular hyphae colonize one or two cells and subsequently produce secondary necrotrophic hyphae (Bailey and Jeger, 1992 1992 ). These pathogens are therefore regarded as hemibiotrophs or facultative biotrophs (Kim et al., 2004 2004 ). For example, C . gloeosporioides on avocado, chilli and citrus can produce both types of colonizations: intracellular biotrophy at an early stage and intramural necrotrophy later (O′Connell et al., 2000 2000 ). Although the mechanisms developed by Colletotrichum species appear similar in prepenetration events, there are differences between species in the later mechanisms such as spore adhesion, melanization and cutinization in penetration of the plant cuticle by the appressoria. For example, the host-pathogen interaction of C . acutatum appears to be more biotrophic than that of some other species such as C . gloeosporioides (Wharton and Diéguez-Uribeondo, 2004 2004 ). Based on studies with C . acutatum on specific hosts, four types of interactions or infection strategies were described by Peres et al.( 2005 2005 ) as follows: There are only a few detailed studies on penetration and colonization by Colletotrichum species on chilli. Kim et al.( 2004 2004 ) noticed that there was no biotrophic infection vesicle found during the infection process of C . gloeosporioides in susceptible chilli ( C . annuum cv. jejujaerae ). Epidermal cytoplasm became condensed and small vacuoles increased and cell destruction extended to the subepidermal cells of the plant, which are likely to be damaged by the pathogen enzymes. At later stages of infection, tissues were colonized inter- and intracellularly by the pathogen. This structural feature indicated that the infection was governed by necrotrophic fungal growth. Colletotrichum species are generally able to survive in or on seeds and one of the ways that anthracnose is introduced to the chilli field is through infected transplants (Manandhar et al., 1995 1995 ). C . capsici infection of chilli was shown to have two pathways: invasion through the seed coat and invasion through the openings of the testa (Jewsakun, 1978 1978 ). Jewsakun ( 1978 1978 ) mentioned that C . capsici caused root rot of seedlings; however, whether chilli anthracnose can be seed-transmitted, and the role of seed infection and seedling infection in pre- and post-emergence damage of chilli plants are still questionable. We have found that C . acutatum can infect chilli seeds either by reducing the germination rates or by causing damping off of seedlings. However, very little is known about the disease cycle of the pathogens that cause anthracnose in chilli. There are still several questions to be answered. IDENTIFICATION OF COLLETOTRICHUM SPECIES 1 Conventional methods 2 Accurate identification of Colletotrichum species along with the knowledge of populations responsible for epidemics are essential for developing and implementing effective disease control strategies (Freeman et al., 1998 1998 ). Traditionally, identification and characterization of Colletotrichum species have been based on morphological characters, such as size and shape of conidia and appressoria; existence of setae; the teleomorph state and cultural characters such as colony colour, growth rate and texture (von Arx, 1957 1957 ; Smith and Black, 1990 1990 ). These criteria alone, however, are not always adequate for species identification due to overlap in morphological characters and phenotypic variation among species under different environmental conditions. Conidial shape has been applied as a reliable means of discriminating certain species; for example, conidial shape has differentiated Colletotrichum species pathogenic to strawberry (Denoyes and Baudry, 1995 1995 ). However, in other cases, identification can be complicated because of overlapping ranges of conidial morphology and variation in colony characteristics (Adaskaveg and Hartin, 1997 1997 ). Correct taxonomic identification is important in disease management such as choosing appropriate fungicides (Whitelaw-Weckert et al., 2007 2007 ). For instance, it could be seen in different responses of C . acutatum and C . gloeosporioides to benzimidazole-based fungicides (Peres et al., 2004 2004 ). Molecular genetics approach 2 To overcome the inadequacies of traditional morphology based identification schemes, DNA sequence analyses have been used to characterize and analyze the taxonomic complexity of Colletotrichum (Sreenivasaprasad et al., 1996 1996 ; Moriwaki et al., 2002 2002 ; Du et al., 2005 2005 ; Photita et al., 2005 2005 ; Than et al., 2008 2008 ). Cannon et al.( 2000 2000 ) stated that data derived from nucleic acid analyses should provide the most reliable framework to build a classification of Colletotrichum , as DNA characters were not directly influenced by environmental factors. Most fungal phylogenetic studies utilized sequences from the ribosomal gene cluster, since they were present in large numbers as tandem repeats and evolved as a single unit (Mitchell et al., 1995 1995 ). In particular, sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions which lie between the 18S and 5.8S genes and the 5.8S and 28S genes, has proved useful in studying phylogenetic relationships of Colletotrichum species because of their comparative variability (Sreenivasaprasad et al., 1994 1994 ; 1996 1996 ; Moriwaki et al., 2002 2002 ; Photita et al., 2005 2005 ). Apart from ITS region, sequence analysis of protein coding genes such as partial β-tubulin gene, has also been applied to resolve phylogenetic relationships among C . acutatum species complexes (Sreenivasaprasad and Talhinhas, 2005 2005 ). Sequences of introns from two genes (glutamine synthase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) were also used to evaluate a diverse collection of isolates of C . acutatum (Guerber et al., 2003 2003 ). C . acutatum isolates clustered into groups (Guerber et al., 2003 2003 ; MacKenzie et al., 2008 2008 ; Peres et al., 2008 2008 ). These groups might represent phylogenetically distinct species of C . acutatum sensu lato (Guerber et al., 2003 2003 ). Yun et al.( 1999 1999 ) stated that, because of the high intra-species variability and the low inter-species variability, MAT1-2 mating type sequences gave strong support for branches, allowing differentiation of closely related Cochliobolus spp. whose relationships were not resolved by ITS sequences alone. Consequently, Du et al.( 2005 2005 ) confirmed that MAT1-2 mating type was useful in differentiating the groups of isolates from the species complexes ( C . graminicola , C . gloeosporioides and C . acutatum ). However, there is no report concerning the use of these genes to differentiate between the Colletotrichum species involved in chilli anthracnose. A combined application of molecular diagnostic tools along with traditional morphological characterization is an appropriate and reliable approach for studying Colletotrichum species complexes (Cannon et al., 2000 2000 ). Than et al.( 2008 2008 ) differentiated isolates of chilli anthracnose from Thailand into three species: C . acutatum , C . capsici and C . gloeosporioides , based on morphological characterization, sequencing based on rDNA-ITS region and partial beta tubulin gene and pathogenicity testing. Hong and Kim ( 2007 2007 ) reported that Korea isolates of C . acutatum were phylogenetically separated from the global groups of C . acutatum A1 to A8 based on the sequences in partial beta-tubulin 2 (exons 3-6). Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) of ITS region resulting from Alu I, Rsa I and Bam HI digestions have also been employed to differentiate Colletotrichum species from chilli anthracnose in Taiwan region (Sheu et al., 2007 2007 ). Four species of Colletotrichum were identified by ITS-RFLP fingerprinting and observation of undistinguishable isolates of Colletotrichum from their studies indicated the various inter- and intra-species variations in Colletotrichum species. Ratanacherdchai et al.( 2007 2007 ) distinguished C . capsici and C . gloeosporioides causing chilli anthracnose in Thailand using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. PATHOGENIC VARIABILITY OF COLLETOTRICHUM SPECIES 1 When any of the progeny exhibits a characteristic that is different from those present in the ancestral individuals or descent individuals, this individual is called a variant (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). This may involve a change in any conceivable biological characteristic, such as color, shape, growth rate and reproduction rate. In the case of pathogens, changes in host range may occur, i.e., it may be able to infect a variety of the host plant or cultivar not previously infected by the ancestor, or in virulence, i.e., it may produce a milder or much more severe disease than the ancestors (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). This is the way that resistance of a plant variety is ‘broken down’ (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). The spread of a resistant genotype capable of escaping a current prevalent pathogen will be challenged by a new parasitic strain that harbors a virulent gene which is capable of overcoming that resistance (McDonald and Linde, 2002 2002 ). Compatibility of plant-pathogen interactions is often governed by the gene-for-gene model in many pathosystems (Flor, 1971 1971 ). This suggests a continuous co-evolutionary change in both host and parasite. Some pathogen populations are known to be pathogenitically diverse, and the diversity seems to be due to continuous generation of novel pathogenic variations (Taylor and Ford, 2007 2007 ). Information on pathogen diversity and the geographic distribution of the pathogen population is therefore a prerequisite for accurate assessment of durable resistant germplasm in breeding programs (Abang, 2003 2003 ). Taylor and Ford ( 2007 2007 ) suggested that knowledge of pathotype diversity is important when choosing the appropriate isolates to screen for resistance in plant breeding programs. We have studied pathogenic variation among 10 isolates of C . acutatum against 7 cultivars including reportedly susceptible species of Capsicum ( Capsicum annuum ‘Bangchang’) (Mongkolporn et al., 2004a 2004a ) and resistant species such as Capsicum chinense ‘PBC 932’ (AVRDC, 1999 1999 ; 2003 2003 ; Mongkolporn et al., 2004a 2004a ), Capsicum baccatum ‘PBC 80’ and ‘PBC 81’ in Thailand. This revealed two pathotypes based on qualitative differences in infection of a reported resistant genotype, C . baccatum genotype ‘PBC 81’. Interestingly, of 10 isolates assayed, the genotype showed complete resistance against 5 isolates tested, whereas it showed a highly susceptible reaction to the other 5 isolates tested. Sharma et al.( 2005 2005 ) studied the pathogenic variability in C . capsici in India and proposed that 15 pathotypes of C . capsici existed among 37 isolates from different chilli growing regions from Himachal Pradesh in India. However, these pathotype differences were based on quantitative differences in host reaction, i.e., level of aggressiveness. Taylor et al.( 2007 2007 ) defined the pathotype as “a subclass or group of isolates distinguishable from others of the same species by its virulence on a specific host (genotype), i.e., a qualitative difference in disease severity” and the aggressiveness as “the natural variation in virulence or level of disease (measured quantitatively) within the pathogen population.” According to Taylor and Ford ( 2007 2007 ), there might be confusion as to whether true pathotype differences exist, or whether the differences observed in disease severity are a measure of the natural distribution of aggressiveness within a population, ranging from low to high. However, the level of aggressiveness of isolates is also an important consideration in resistance breeding programmes and disease control management. Genotypes with partial resistance would result in lower level of infection which eventually will decrease the inoculum amount in the field to limit the potential of epidemics. Several studies (AVRDC, 1999 1999 ; Yoon et al., 2004 2004 ) have screened C . acutatum , which is the very virulent species (Than et al., 2008 2008 ), against chilli genotypes and found that Capsicum baccatum genotype ‘PBC 80’ is a genetic resource pool for resistance to anthracnose. We have also confirmed this. This genotype is assumed to be useful for studying genetics of resistance and practical breeding in chilli pepper. However, we found that another genotype of C . baccatum , ‘PBC 81’, showed high susceptibility to some C . acutatum isolates. This would make it questionable as to whether C . baccatum species are a useful genetic resource pool for breeding for resistance to anthracnose. In contrast to C . baccatum , susceptibility of the C . annuum cultivars has been reported in several studies (Mongkolporn et al., 2004b 2004b ; Park, 2007 2007 ). In addition, Capsicum chinense ‘PBC 932’ has been reported as a resistant variety to Colletotrichum capsici and hence has been introgressed with C . annuum ‘Bangchang’ to produce F 1 progeny (AVRDC, 2003 2003 ). However, Yoon et al.( 2004 2004 ) and Than et al.( 2008 2008 ) found that the ‘PBC 932’ was highly susceptible to C . acutatum isolates. Nevertheless, this information about highly susceptible reaction of ‘PBC 932’ will help chilli breeders to be aware of the potential for breaking down its resistance to C . acutatum . POPULATION STRUCTURE AND MOLECULAR MARKER TECHNIQUES 1 The genetic structure of plant pathogen populations, the potential for gene flow and long distance dispersal, and the relative contribution of sexual and asexual reproduction have direct inference with agricultural ecosystems (McDonald and McDermott, 1993 1993 ; McDonald, 1997 1997 ). Abang ( 2003 2003 ) stated that genetic population structure refers to the amount and distribution of genetic variation within and between populations. For example, how rapidly a pathogen can evolve could be indicated by the amount of genetic variation maintained within a population and then which may eventually be used to predict how long a control measure is probable to be effective (McDonald and Linde, 2002 2002 ). Pathogens with large genetic variations are assumed to adapt faster to fluctuating environments (e.g., resistant genes and fungicides). In general, organisms reproduce by means of a sexual process. Variation in progeny is introduced primarily through segregation and recombination of genes in meiotic division of the zygote (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). However, in the case of anamorphic fungi such as Colletotrichum , reproduction is mainly or exclusively vegetative (Katan, 2000 2000 ). Parasexual reproduction, by which a system of genetic recombination can occur within fungal heterokaryon, will likely lead to variation. The new variants come into existence, which may be identical in appearance to that of the ancestral types, but behave differently as far as disease production is concerned (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). In recent decades, molecular markers have been widely used to measure the variation in a pathogen population. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), simple sequence repeat (microsatellite), inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), and genomic DNA RFLP, are among the most frequently used neutral genetic markers in population genetic studies (Brown et al., 1996 1996 ; Milgroom, 1996 1996 ; McDonald, 1997 1997 ). Despite its importance, there have only been a few studies concerning the diversity of Colletotrichum species associated with chilli anthracnose. Sharma et al.( 2005 2005 ) found a variable population of C . capsici causing fruit rot/die back or anthracnose of chilli in the northwestern region of India based on differential inoculation tests and RAPD analysis. In contrast, examination of C . acutatum from a limited collection of isolates from chilli anthracnose epidemics in Brazil, Korea, Taiwan region and the US indicated that they belonged to a single group based on mtDNA-RFLP analysis (Correll et al., 2007 2007 ). They also found that most isolates (36 out of 43) examined from the various countries and regions belonged to a single vegetative compatibility group (VCG). As the sexual stages of C . acutatum have never been found in nature (Wharton and Diéguez-Uribeondo, 2004 2004 ), the asexual reproduction mode of C . acutatum is likely to be an important role in its population structure. DISEASE MANAGEMENT OF CHILLI ANTHRACNOSE 1 Bailey ( 1987 1987 ) and Agrios ( 2005 2005 ) recommended integrated management techniques, as no single specific management program could eliminate chilli anthracnose. Effective control of Colletotrichum diseases usually involves the use of a combination of cultural control, biological control, chemical control and intrinsic resistance (Wharton and Diéguez-Uribeondo, 2004 2004 ). Cultural practices 2 Pathogen-free chilli seed should be planted and weeds eliminated. Crops should be rotated every 2~3 years with crops that are not alternative hosts of Colletotrichum . Transplants should be kept clean by controlling weeds and solanaceous volunteers around the transplant houses. The field should have good drainage and be free from infected plant debris. If disease was previously present, crops should be rotated away from solanaceous plants for at least 2 years (Roberts et al., 2001 2001 ). Sanitation practices in the field include control of weeds and volunteer chilli plants. Choosing cultivars that bear fruit with a shorter ripening period may allow the fruit to escape infection by the fungus. Wounds in fruit from insects or other means should be reduced to the extent possibly because wounds provide entry points for Colletotrichum spp. and other pathogens such as bacteria that cause soft rot. At the end of the season, infected plant debris from the field must be removed or deep ploughed to completely cover crop diseases (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). Use of resistant cultivars 2 The use of resistant varieties not only eliminated losses from diseases, but also eliminated chemical and mechanical expenses of disease control (Agrios, 2005 2005 ). Some genetic resources resistant to anthracnose in chilli have been independently reported from different countries and regions (Kim W.G. et al., 1986 1986 ; Kim B.S. et al., 1987 1987 ; Park et al., 1987 1987 ; Hong and Hwang, 1998 1998 ; Pae et al., 1998 1998 ; AVRDC, 1999 1999 ; Yoon and Park, 2001 2001 ). In particular, some lines of C . baccatum show strong resistance to the pathogen, and pathogen inoculation resulted in no or limited lesions on the chilli fruits (Yoon, 2003 2003 ). However, to date, no strong resistance has been found in Capsicum annuum , which is the only species grown worldwide (Park, 2007 2007 ). Mongkolporn et al.( 2004a 2004a ) carried out a genetic study of anthracnose resistance to C . capsici , which was expressed in the interspecific cross of Thai susceptible C . annuum cv. ‘Bangchang’ and anthracnose resistant C . chinense ‘CM 021’. The genetic purity of the F1 was proven by using molecular marker analysis. Recently, Voorrips et al.( 2004 2004 ) have found one main quantitative trait locus (QTL) with high significance and large effects on resistance and three other QTLs with smaller effects on the F2 population (cross between C . annuum and C . chinense ) on the traits they tested, such as infection frequency, the true lesion diameter and overall lesion diameter after inoculation with C . gloeosporioides in the study of resistance to anthracnose disease in Indonesia. Use of chemicals 2 Chemicals are the most common and practical method to control anthracnose diseases. However, fungicide tolerance often arises quickly, if a single compound is relied upon too heavily (Staub, 1991 1991 ). The fungicide traditionally recommended for anthracnose management in chilli is Manganese ethylenebisdithiocarbamate (Maneb) (Smith, 2000 2000 ), although it does not consistently control the severe form of anthracnose on chilli fruit. The strobilurin fungicides azoxystrobin (Quadris), trifloxystrobin (Flint), and pyraclostrobin (Cabrio) have recently been labeled for the control of anthracnose of chilli, but only preliminary reports are available on the efficacy of these fungicides against the severe form of the disease (Alexander and Waldenmaier, 2002 2002 ; Lewis and Miller, 2003 2003 ). The disease can be controlled under normal weather conditions with a reasonable spray program. However, there are numerous reports of negative effects of using chemicals on farmers’ income and health, and toxic contamination to the environment, particularly in developing countries (Voorrips et al., 2004 2004 ). Use of biofungicides 2 The control of chilli anthracnose fruit rot has, for many years, relied on chemicals and resulted in many undesirable problems. There is a need to incorporate alternative control components that are effective in field. Biological control of fruit rot and dieback of chilli with plant products tested in many laboratories and field trials showed that the crude extract from rhizome, leaves and creeping branches of sweetflag ( Acorus calamus L.), palmorosa ( Cymbopogon martinii ) oil, Ocimum sanctum leaf extract, and neem ( Azadirachia indica ) oil could restrict growth of the anthracnose fungus (Jeyalakshmi and Seetharaman, 1998 1998 ; Korpraditskul et al., 1999 1999 ). Among the biofungicides used against the fungus Colletotrichum spp. on chilli fruit, Charigkapakorn ( 2000 2000 ) found that the most effective control was sweetflag crude extract when applied in two intervals when the majority of the plants were at the first bloom stage and at the mature bloom stage. Biological control 2 So far, biological control methods for chilli anthracnose disease have not received much attention. The potential for biological control of Colletotrichum species had been suggested as early as in 1976 by Lenné and Parbery ( 1976 1976 ). Jeger and Jeffries ( 1988 1988 ) also stressed the possibilities of biological control of post-harvest fruit diseases by using Pseudomonas fluorescens . Antagonistic bacterial strains (DGg13 and BB133) were found to effectively control C . capsici , the major anthracnose pathogen in Thailand (Intanoo and Chamswarng, 2007 2007 ). It is also believed that Trichoderma species are able to effectively compete for surface area, thereby reducing pathogen infection success (Jeffries and Koomen, 1992 1992 ; Maymon et al., 2004 2004 ). Trichoderma species have been applied to control Colletotrichum species in chilli (Boonratkwang et al., 2007 2007 ), strawberries (Freeman et al., 2001 2001 ), and citrus in Belize (Moretto et al., 2001 2001 ) with concomitant disease reduction. Other biological control agents that have been tested for efficacy against C . acutatum include Bacillus subtilis and Candida oleophila (Wharton and Diéguez-Uribeondo, 2004 2004 ). ASPECTS TO CURRENT STATUS OF CHILLI ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE MANAGEMENT 1 Management and control of the anthracnose disease are still under extensive research (Yoon et al., 2004 2004 ). Among disease control management, the use of resistant cultivars is the cheapest, easiest, safest and most effective means of controlling the disease. This is not only to eliminate losses from the disease but also decrease the cost of chemical and mechanical control, as well as reduce contamination of the environment from the use of toxic chemicals. However, management of disease through breeding of pathogen-resistant cultivars has only had limited success due to frequent breakdown of resistance under field conditions. Commercial cultivars of Capsicum annuum resistant to the pathogens that cause anthracnose have not yet been developed (Park, 2007 2007 ). Nevertheless, high levels of resistance to the Colletotrichum species that infect chilli have been found in some species of Capsicum , for instance, C . baccatum . Current research is focusing on introgression of this resistance into susceptible commercial cultivars of C . annuum (AVRDC, 2003 2003 ; Pakdeevaraporn et al., 2005 2005 ). Recently in Thailand, Mongkolporn et al.( 2004a 2004a ) have studied the inheritance of resistance to anthracnose specifically caused by Colletotrichum capsici , in a Capsicum annuum population established from a cross between accession ‘83-168’ and cv. ‘KKU-Cluster’, and their progenies. They observed a promising dominant gene responsible for the resistance to C . capsici . 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Evolution of the fungal self-fertile reproductive life style from self-sterile ancestors 10.1631/jzus.B0860007 2008-08-05 2008-08-18 2022-01-05 Copyright © 2008, Journal of Zhejiang University Science 2008 Journal of Zhejiang University-SCIENCE B (Biomedicine and Biotechnology) 10 09